Why not contact your County Rating Team and ask them to work out temporary ratings for the 10 & 15 hole courses. Shouldn't take them long as they will have all the figures necessary from your last full rating? Maybe also look at MLR-E2 (clean ball) which is valid for handicapping in the GA...
The reference point is where it last crossed the boundary of the penalty area. 2 club lengths left or right would take you further from the hole although the stance might not be ideal. If it bounces forward you have one more attempt. If that also bounces forward then place the ball where it...
The fence seems to be a permanent fixture to protect persons on the track. Your Committee has defined it as an immovable obstruction so I can't see an argument against free relief. If they had defined it as an integral object then that would be different but they haven't!
If you have proof or are willing to attest that he put a card in after playing by himself then you must report it. This is blatant cheating and should be subject to a disciplinary hearing. Over to you!
If they don't already exist, you must have comprehensive written competition rules, both general and for all formats of comps. That way you will be teflon coated if there are any problems. Get hold of a copy of the official guide to the rules of golf and read the Committee Procedures section.
This is one where you can use the rules to your advantage. Rule 19.2a/1 covers this exact scenario where the ball lands further from the hole than where the stroke was made. He would have been within the rules to re-take the shot from the original position for one penalty stroke.
All covered by Rule 15.3b.
b. Ball Anywhere on Course Interfering with Play
If another player reasonably believes your ball might interfere with his or her play:
The other player may require you to mark the spot and lift your ball, which must not be cleaned (except when you lifted it from...
It's very likely their low handicap index has just changed given the age of their best 20. Also likely to be under a hard or soft cap but impossible to tell from the screenshots.
I would say that there has been a lack of communication between the club manager and handicap secretary. Penalty scores are not applied for valid reasons such as illness. Your friend should email the handicap secretary and copy it to the club manager.
Here's the link for your friend to read...
Jim8Flog is correct. I suggest you re-read the definition of a Loose Impediment: "Worms, insects and similar animals that can be removed easily, and the mounds or webs they build (such as worm casts and ant hills)".
Definitely almost (b). His drive counted as 1 stroke then add a penalty stroke for OOB, then the other three play from the tee for a total of 3. Whichever of those 3 has that shot from the tee chosen doesn't play the 4th shot as it's a Florida.